The Lady of Shalott Essay -- essays research papers

1.IntroductionThis paper will try to analyze the growth of intelligence of the Lady of Shalott. Ranging from her state of mind in total isolation, her barbarianhood, to her changing adolescence and eventually reaching adulthood and death, all in a sort of quick-motion. It will further care for with the learning of tenseness through pop out the poem. By making a distinction between tension through formal aspects, such as rhyme scheme, and tension through content it will try to show the interconnection between both of them. Additionally, the paper will deal with the possible effect of tension on the reader and how the poem ability be perceived by him/her.2.Growth of Consciousness and Development of Tension2.1.Initial IsolationLord Alfred Tennysons poem starts out with the total seclusion of the beautiful, young Lady of Shalott surrounded by &8230four grey walls, and four grey towers&8230. (Tennyson, line 15). She is largely unaware of the world after-school(prenominal) and of h er own existence as a woman, only being able to see shadows of reality, which are reflected by her magic (?) crystal mirror and worked into her web. At this smear of time it is un cognize to the reader whether the Lady of Shalott is forced to be in this bit or chose to live this life of isolation. Reasons for a self inflicted seclusion might be homophobia, the fear of rejection by the exterior world, or simply a lack of interest for it. However, the Lady of Shalott is rather content with what she has and what she does. Her life of art in front of the loom and the crystal mirror is all she needs singing her &8230song that echoes cheerly&8230 (30) throughout the land. She is as innocent as a careless child giving little thought about her future. The Lady of Shalott has no urge to leave her own interior world because she is not aware of any other(a) options. Little is known about her outside &8230many-towered Camelot. (5) and apparently she intends to keep it that wayBut who hath s een her wave her hand ?Or at the casement seen her stand ? Or is she known in all the land,The Lady of Shalott ? (24-27)By now the reader might ask him-/herself why the Lady of Shalott is stuck in such a dreadful situation and why she does not attempt to do anything about it. There is a cons... ...martyrdom and so the story ends, leaving the reader in anger about the rakishly spoken words of Lancelot. 3ConclusionThe Lady of Shalott was and is subject for countless interpretation by readers and artists, especially pictorial. Although, or maybe because the whole setting is quite vague and shadowy there have been many attempts to explain why the Lady of Shalott was cursed. Maybe she was not cursed al all. What was this whisper she heard ? Was she schizophrenic, earshot voices inside her head ? Another question is why she had to die in the end. Is it possible she eventually commit suicide, because she had realized that her love for Sir Lancelot was futile ? These are near questions t hat stay in the back of your head after reading Tennysons poem. Even today you can feel the infinite struggle the Lady of Shalott had to undergo. Tennyson impressively shows the development of a young woman who is faced with one of the most difficult times in life- growing up in a world intact of restrictions and rules and becoming a woman. His subtle description of a girls problems at his time is, slightly altered, even valid today.

why i dont want to submit this essay :: essays research papers

One of Frosts commonest subjects is the choice the poet is faced with deuce roads, two ideas, two possibilities of action. The Road Not Taken deals with the choice between two roads, and with the results of the choice which the poet makes. It raises the evident question of whether it is better to choose a road in which m whatsoever travel, or to choose the road less travelled and explore it yourself. In The Road Not Taken, the speakers tone and setting help illustrate the engagement a person goes through in their lives to pick the right road to travel. It is possible to read this poem as a statement of some self-pity on the poets part, a feeling, perhaps, that he has been cheated and misunderstood because he took an unpopular path. To support this tone, one might point to the last stanza The speaker will some day, sighing, severalise others that he took the unknown road when faced with a choice. The reading, however, misses much of the significance of the second and third stanzas. At the end of the second, the speaker states that there was really non much difference in the two roads neither had really been worn by traffic, though one had been given more wear than the other. It becomes distinct that the speakers tone begins to change. It becomes a little more confident, not much, but definitely less confused and scared than he was earlier. The first glimpse of this change in tone is in the eighth verse where he says, because is the second road was grassy and requisiteed wear. It also shows that the speaker may not want to be like everybody else, a follower, but instead, chose a different road and be himself, a leader. This verse also says that the road wanted wear, like he was drawn to the path, not just out of his own desire to be different, but maybe out of some pity. That pity being that the road is traveled less not because it is not appealing, but that people are too afraid to be different. Verse 12 is interesting when the speaker says that, In leaves no step had trodden black, which the reader could interpret meaning that few people who did choose to take the road less traveled did not come across any difficulties or obstacles. He then goes on to say that, Oh, I kept the first for another day, as to say

Lord Of The Flies :: essays research papers

The adventure novel, The Lord of the Flies, was an epic tale that depicted the different facets of the human spirit. It was written by William Golding in the 1950s and recieved many awards. Idt was stated the Outstanding Novel of the Year by E.M. Forrester. The author did in no wat mean for this falsehood to be biographical, but Mr. Golding depicted well the many different aspect of human nature. The book has been described as provacative, vivid and enthralling, but Time and Tide utter it best when they wrote, It is not only a first-rate adventure story but a parable of our times. The novel took place on an island probably someplace in the middle of the Atlantic. This can be inferred because of the fact that the boys are British and that they arrived on the island by way of a plane cradsh. The story also occurred during wartime. The story begins when a group of British boys crash on an uninhabited island. In the beginning they area all unruly and unmorginized. Finally, a boy by the nakme of Ralph decides to commence charge and call a meeting. The boys declare him chief and then begin to follow his lead. Ralph is also assisted by another lad by the forebode of Piggy. The group of boys were getting along fine until jak Merridew, a boy who wanted to be chief instead, decided to go his ingest way. He disobeyed Ralph and did things his own way. He was to preoccupied witdh his own whims to do the act that was most important on the island, which was to keep the signal going so they could be rescued. Finally, Jack went against Ralph and declared that if any of the other boys wanted to have fun, which meant acting like savages, that they should follow him. The boys splot up into two groups and then havoc insued. Jacks group went some lookup and being barbaric while the others tried to get rescued. In the end Jack had gotten all the boys except Ralph to run around loke wild animals. Then when Jack got tired of dealing with Ralph, he convinced wveryone to try a nd kill him. By then however, a navy ship had come an they could never get around to the nasty deed. There was more than one antagonist in the story, The Lord of the Flies.

Interview With an Elderly Person Essay -- social issues, illness, depr

Aging and being old was dominated by negative characteristics and conditions such as illness, depression, and isolation for a long time (Eibach, Mock, & Courtney, 2010). At prime(prenominal) glance the terms success and senescent seem to be in conflict to each other. When asking people about aging, their answers have many facets that be also found in psychological definitions successful aging is seen as health, maturity and personal growth, self-acceptance, happiness, generativity, coping, and acceptance of age-related limitations. In the psychological sense successful aging is also often seen as the absence of age-associated characteristics (Strawbridge, Wallhagen, & Cohen, 2002). It seems that successful aging means is not aging. MethodsI interviewed my 92 year old neighbor who, I believe, presents a case of successful aging. As far as I can tell, she has not experienced many limitations due to age. She is spirited, active, and bright. Other neighbors tell me that she has bee n somewhat physically restrained in the recent past, and she has been using a walker more frequently, but she seems to be fine with that. She grew up in Germany, a country that is really close to the United States in regards to how people view aging. According to McConatha, Schnell, Volkwein, Riley, and Leach (2003), Germans, compared to US Americans, view aging a somewhat more negatively. They are often more pessimistic about the likelihood of finding contentment in old age and generally do not expect to feel close when they are older. To my surprise, my aunts views about aging were very positive.The Interview QuestionsThe following interview was held on the 1st of March 2014 over the phone. I asked my aunt a some questions and gave her the reason... ...velopment. Boston, MA Allyn & Bacon.McConatha, J. T., Schnell, F., Volkwein, K., Riley, L., & Leach, E. (2003). Attitudes toward aging a comparative analysis of young adults from the United States and Germany. International Journal Of Aging & Human Development, 57(3), 203215.Ong, A. D., Bergeman, C. S., Bisconti, T. L., & Wallace, K. A. (2006). Psychological resilience, positive emotions, and successful adaption to stress in later life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(4), 730.Quoidbach, J., Gilbert, D. T., & Wilson, T. D. (2013). The end of history illusion. Science, 339(6115), 9698.Rowe, J. W., & Kahn, R. L. (1997). Successful aging. The Gerontologist, 37(4), 43340.Strawbridge, W. J., Wallhagen, M. I., & Cohen, R. D. (2002). Successful aging and well-being Self-rated compared with Rowe and Kahn. The Gerontologist, 42(6), 72733.

Six Hours Of Television :: essays research papers

Six Hours of TelevisionIn looking at modern television schedule thither are hundreds of suggeststo choose from. pickax six hours of television to analyze from the prospectiveof an anthropologist is by no means easy. It is easy however, to talk aboutwhat our nation looks like to others who have never been here. Everyone isgorgeous, lives happily, and overcomes every last(predicate) problems, unless more on that later.Four hours of the programming I chose is perhaps the most ordinary programmingthis year, consistently topping the Nielsen ratings. For the remaining twohours of programming I decided to look at two police drama shows, one that wasbrand new this season and one not brand new, but still going strong.For the two hours of police dramas, I looked at programs with differentangles. NYPD BLUE is the story of police detectives, and HIGH consequent was anew show that looked at the view of policing from the beat. HIGH INCIDENTrepresented one of the first t.v. shows to come fr om the SKG works of StevenSpielberg. However, just like Spielbergs previous AMAZING STORIES, HIGHINCIDENT has already ceased to air. This could still change though, with thenext season. Of the remaining four hours, three are on television everyThursday night, and include the tremendously popular FRIENDS, the SINGLE GUY,the hits SEINFELD and CAROLINE IN THE CITY, and the most popular show this year,ER. For the remaining hour I choose to look at THE TONIGHT SHOW, with Jay Leno.Between these shows there are numerous similarities and many differences. All ofthese shows can be directly compared with each other, having virtually of the samequalities. Looking at these shows in the perspective of an anthropologist somedisquieting trends emerge. I will present the information as if an outsider,from another nation, were watching American shows, and thinkd what he/she wasseeing to be true of what goes on in America.Perhaps more realistic than the other shows, NYPD BLUE, and HIGH INCIDENTrep resent the closest what life is really like. To a foreigner seeing theseshows, they would probably believe that America is a blood bath of crime and illwill towards other people. While this isnt true the whole nation over, thereare many cities like those portrayed in these two shows. Like the other shows Iwill discuss, these two have casts made up of predominately Caucasian males andfemales. Other nationalities, such(prenominal) as Asian, Afro-American, and Latino aresprinkled in just enough to make sure the shows are politically correct. To an

Attending a Lecture on Brown vs. Board of Education by Julian Bond :: Lectures Julian Bond Race Segregation

Broken Promise of Brown I att mop uped a lecture entitled the Broken Promise of Brown which was given by Julian Bond. This took place at Smith Memorial Hall on April 2 at 730 p.m. As I entered the building and made my mood to the main entrance of the auditorium, I noticed that this CAS/MillerComm lecture was more formal than the usual CAS/MillerComm lectures. CAS/MillerComm was the sponsor of this event and also sponsors an entire lecture series rationalise to the public. As I entered the auditorium there were a cameraman and interviewer asking people as they walked in what they knew about the Brown vs. Board decision. Or at to the lowest degree that was one of the questions I overheard as I snuck past them in to the auditorium. As I walked down the aisle I wanted to try to get easily a seat near the front. I made it all the way to the fourth row and asked some old white ladies if the seat on the end was taken. It was, but the fourth seat from the a isle was not. So I squeezed past them and sit down. At this time I opened my notebook and began taking notes on some of my observations. As I looked around, I noticed that most of the people at this particular lecture were black or white. And it seemed that there was a trusty mix of older students, middle aged people and older folks, all seemingly either black or white. Most of the older folks sat in the front, probably for sight reasons, and most of the older students sat in the back, probably just to attend the lecture and leave. As I was sitting postpone workforcet for the lecture to begin I looked at some of those around me. I sat on the left side of the auditorium in the fourth row, fourth seat. To my speedy right were two white old ladies and one white old man. To my left were an open seat and then sat three black men clad in black suits, most likely in their later twenties. In front of me, were three black women in what appeared to be their thirties, ho w accurate my guess of age is I am not too sure, and also a younger black man.

Attending a Lecture on Brown vs. Board of Education by Julian Bond :: Lectures Julian Bond Race Segregation

Broken see of browned I attended a gravel entitled the Broken Promise of Brown which was given by Julian Bond. This took place at Smith Memorial Hall on April 2 at 730 p.m. As I entered the building and made my way to the main entrance of the auditorium, I noticed that this CAS/MillerComm lecture was more formal than the usual CAS/MillerComm lectures. CAS/MillerComm was the sponsor of this event and too sponsors an entire lecture series free to the public. As I entered the auditorium there were a cameraman and interviewer asking people as they walked in what they knew about the Brown vs. Board decision. Or at least that was one of the questions I overheard as I snuck past them in to the auditorium. As I walked down the aisle I wanted to try to get good a seat near the front. I made it all the way to the fourth row and asked some darkened white ladies if the seat on the end was taken. It was, but the fourth seat from the aisle was not. So I squeeze d past them and sat down. At this time I opened my notebook and began taking notes on some of my observations. As I looked around, I noticed that most of the people at this particular lecture were smutty or white. And it seemed that there was a good mix of older students, middle aged people and older folks, all seemingly either dark or white. Most of the older folks sat in the front, probably for sight reasons, and most of the older students sat in the back, probably just to attend the lecture and leave. As I was sitting waiting for the lecture to begin I looked at some of those around me. I sat on the left situation of the auditorium in the fourth row, fourth seat. To my immediate right were two white old ladies and one white old man. To my left were an open seat and thusly sat three black men clad in black suits, most likely in their later twenties. In front of me, were three black women in what appeared to be their thirties, how accurate my gauge of age is I am not too sure, and also a younger black man.

Jeffrey Smart

JEFFREY SMART ESSAY An Iconic and well-known Australian artist, born in Adelaide in 1921 and moved permanently to Italy in 1963, often fix using his work to depict industrial urban landscapes, he is Jeffrey hopeful. Smarts work has been part of Australian culture for more than than half a century, he is Australias master of the urban vision seeing beauty in the landscapes of modernism, his works feature industrial wastelands and concrete streetscapes he pays close aid to clean lines, composition and geometry.This essay will critically analyse Jeffrey Smarts painting Autobahn in the Black tone 1 which was created in 1979/80 using oil on canvas, it measures 100 x 65cm in size. Smarts work is influenced by urban landscapes, an example of one of his works is Autobahn in the Black Forest 1 this piece is an example of many influenced by urban landscapes. On the right hand side of the painting it shows a series of road barriers on a road going off into the distance, they are motley re d and white diagonally.The commencement ceremony barrier seen has a vertical pole attached with a rust texture, added is a shadow on the right side of the pole to make the painting more realistic. The unexpended hand side shows a road, painted onto the road are yellow lines these lines get more vibrant into the distance. The sky is dark though gets brighter into the distance of the painting. Forest trees are surrounding the road. The main shapes utilise are rectangles.The lower right of the painting has a signature Jeffrey Smart. Many of Smarts paintings are focused on the element of shape. In this painting he uses simple rectangles he has painted the road lines dark yellow which gets more vibrant into the distance of the painting. There is an obvious repetition shown in the painting, the road barriers, these barriers are also coloured brightly. Smart admits that its a painstaking process for him getting the right shapes in the right place. The gloomy sky seen in the painting is used in many of Smarts paintings, and when asked why his skies are always so gloomy and smog-laden, Smart replied with, I need a dark sky for the composition, because the pale blue at the top of the frame loses nothing. I work on the basis that our eyes go from left to right, left to right, left to right, always. So I always have something for the eye to start with on the left there, brings it across, and then something to bring it back again. These dark, gloomy skies re found in most of his paintings, including Autobahn in the black forest 1. Although Smart agrees composition is central to his paintings, he says the play of light and shadow is every bit important, along with stillness and silence The elements Smart has used and evident in this piece are colour, repetition, space and shape. Smart chooses his art to portray scenes of modern architecture. Since childhood, where his first ambition was to be an architect, he has harboured a fascination for the subject.Which he finds ex citing and beautiful, and he has based his style around the strong, simple, geometric shapes and lines that can be seen in them. He strives in his artwork to achieve the perfect composition of shape, balance, colour and light and what he calls the fundamental aesthetic principal of absolute stillness in his paintings. Smarts environment has been his most important influence he spent his early years discovering the back lanes of the citys inner suburbs. Street signs, apartment blocks and construction sites then had set about his subject matter.It was in Italy that the colours, shapes and designs of a country rebuilding itself after World War Two inspired Smart. And in 1965, he moved to Italy and bought the house where he has still resided for about 40 years. Smart decided early on in his career what he wanted to work with My attraction to urban life, factories, trucks and empty lots came in my early 20s when I decided that I had painted my last billabong scene forever. Travelling to Europe and Italy in particular allowed Smart to date and study works at first hand.One reason for Smart to buy a property and establish a studio near Arezzo was that the Church of San Francesco in that city contained the great fresco cycle the legend of the true cross by the Quattrocento artist, a work which has continued to inspire Smart throughout his life. Jeffrey Smart is without doubt one of the most outstanding Australian painters of the modern age. I like living in the 20th century to me the world has never been more beautiful. I am trying to paint the real world I live in, as beautifully as I can, with my own eye.

Rizal Life and Works

INTRODUCTIONRizal left Europe for Hong Kong, where he expired from November 1891 to June 1892. His reasons for leaving Europe were lifespan was unbearable in Europe because of his political differences with M.H. del Pilar and other Filipinos in Spain. to be near his idolized Philippines and family.FAREWELL TO EUROPERizal left Ghent for Paris on October 3, 1891He proceeded by train to Marseilles and on October 18, he boarded the steamer Melbourne bound for Hong Kong. He brought with him a earn of recommendation by Juan Luna for spelluel Camus, a compatriot living in Singapore, and 600 copies of the Fili Manuel Camus-During that time, he was a student and was make as a mason on October 12, 1898 at Zetland in the East Lodge No 508 in Singapore under the legal power of the M. W. Grand Lodge of England. He thus became a Senator of the Philippines on his later years. There were over 80 first class passengers mostly Europeans, including 2 Spaniards He befriended numerous missionaries and whizz of them is Fr. Fuchs, a Tyrolese, which he jollifyed playing chess with. He even wrote to Blumentritt saying ..He is a fine fellow, a Father Damaso with bulge pride and malice..RIZAL AND THE German LADIESOne evening at a dinner time the passengers were having their meal in the dining room. Rizal being the solely Asian, was eating unsocial at one table. Near him was a bigger table occupied by some German ladies who were gaily eating and gossiping about the lone Asian manful who was quietly taking his meal. Rizal, who was fluent in German, understood what the talkative German ladies were saying about him, but he simply kept silent, letting the ladies enjoy their gossip.Suddenly the fast running steamer encountered a heavysqu each(prenominal) and the door of the dining room was blown open. Nobody among the passengers who were busy eating stood up to wet the door. A lady said to her companions in German If this man in front of us were a gentleman he would close the door. Upon hearing her remark, Rizal, without saying a word, rose and closed the door, after which he resumed his seat. He then conversed with German ladies in perfect German. Of course, the German ladies were very much embarrassed, and, thenceforth they treated Rizal with admiration and respect, despite his brown skin, for he was a cultured gentleman.ARRIVED IN HONG KONGNovember 20, 1891 Rizal arrived in Hong KongHe was welcomed by the Filipino residents, especi every last(predicate)y his old friend, Jose Ma. Basa. He then established his residence at No. 5 D Aguilar Street, No. 2 Rednaxola Terrace, where he also opened his medical clinic. December 1, 1891 he wrote his parents enquire their permission to return home. On the same date, his brother-in-law, Manuel T. Hidalgo, sent him a letter, relating the sad news of the deportation of twenty-five persons from Calamba, including father, Neneng, Sisa, Lucia, Paciano, and the rest of us. Also stated in his letter that he was preparing a letter to the Queen Regent of Spain explaining the Calamba situation in order to secure justice. Even saying such as If the Queen allow non listen, we will write to Queen capital of Seychelles of England appealing for protection in the name of humanityFAMILY REUNION IN HONG KONGBefore Christmas of 1891, he was gladdened by the arrival of his father, brother and Silvestre Ubaldo (his brother-in-law) in Hong Kong. Not long afterwards his mother and sisters Lucia, Josefa , and Trinidad also arrived. January 31, 1892 he wrote to Blumentritt recounting their pleasant life in Hong Kong, as follows here we are all living together, my parents, sisters, and brother in peace and far from persecutions they suffered in the Philippines. They are very much pleased with the English government.OPHTHALMIC surgeon IN HONG KONGDr. Lorenzo P. Marques a friend and admirer who helped him to build up a wide clientele. He successfully operated on his mothers left marrow so that she was able to r ead and write again. January 31, 1892 writing to Blumentritt, he said Here I practise as a doctor and I pass on . . . Here many sick of influenza because in that respect is an epidemic. Through the newspaper I am informed that this sickness is also causing ravages in Europe. I rely you and your esteemed family will be spared. In our house, my mother, my brother-in-law, and one of my sister are sick. Thank God, they are out of danger. Rizal was given moral support and important aid in his medical practice in Hong Kong from some of his friends in Europe. Mr. Boustead (the father of Nelly Bousted) wrote to him on March 21, 1892, praising him for his medical profession Dr. Ariston Bautista Lin sent him a congratulatory letter and a book on Diagnostic Pathology by Dr. H. Virchow and another medical book entitled Traite Diagnostique by Mesnichock. Don Antonio Vergel de Dios offered him his services for the leverage of medical books and instruments which he might need in his profess ion. Rizal possessed the qualities of a great ophthalmic surgeon. In the words of Dr. Geminiano de Ocampo, a distinguished Filipino eye doctor He had all the qualities that would make an ideal ophthalmic surgeon a keen and analytical intellect, lightness of touch and artistry of a painter, courage and imperturbability, a broad and deep knowledge of medicine and ophthalmology, and last but not the least, he had been properly and adequately trained by master ophthalmic surgeons.BORNEO closure PROJECTRizal conceived the establishment of a Filipino colony in North Borneo (Sabah) He planned to move those Filipino families to that British-owned island and carve out of its virgin wilderness a New Calamba March 7, 1892 he went to Sandakan on board the ship Menon to negotiate with the British authorities for the establishment of a Filipino colony. His mission was successful.The British politics of Borneo were willing to give the Filipino colonists, 100,000 acres of land, a beautiful har bor and a good government for 999 years, free of all charges. By April 20, he was cover charge in Hong Kong.Rizal friends in Europe enthusiastically endorsed his Borneo colonization project. Lopez Jaena express his rely to join the project and wrote to Rizal sayingI build a great desire of joining you. Reserve for me there a piece of land where I fuel plant sugarcane. I shall go there. . . to dedicate myself to the cultivation of sugarcane and the qualification of sugar. Send me further details. Hidalgo, on the other hand, objected to the colonization project sayingThis idea about Borneo, is no good. Why should we leave the Philippines, this beautiful bucolic of ours? And too what will people say? Why have we made all these haves? Why should we go to a foreign land without first exhausting all means for the welfare of the country which nurtured us from our cradles? Tell me that The infamous Weyler, whom the Cubans called The Butcher was relieved of his gubernatorial office. A new governor general Eulogio Despujol, the Count of Caspe, proclaimed to the Filipino people a fine program of government Rizal sent him a letter of felicitation (dated December 23, 1891) and offering his cooperation, but instead the governor did not even acknowledge receipt of his letter.Rizal wrote a min letter (dated March 21, 1892), in this second letter, he requested the governor general to give up the landless Filipinos to establish themselves in Borneo. Despujol, did not give Rizal the courtesy of a reply. Instead, he notified the Spanish consul general in Hong Kong to tell Rizal that he could not approve the Filipino immigration to Borneo, alleging that, the Philippines lacked laborers and it was not very patriotic to go off and cultivate foreign soilWRITINGS IN HONG KONGHe wrote Ang Mga Karapatan Nang Tao (a tagalog translation of The Rights of Man proclaimed by the French Revolution in 1789) About the same time (1891), he wrote A la Nacion Espaola (To the Spanish Nat ion), which is anappeal to Spain to even out the violates through to the Calamba tenants. Another proclamation, entitled Sa Mga Kababayan (To my Countrymen) was written in December 1891 explaining the Calamba agrarian situation. Rizal contributed articles to the British daily newspaper, The Hong Kong Telegraph, whose editor, Mr. Frazier Smith, was his friend.March 2, 1892 Rizal wrote Una Visita a la Victoria Gaol (A Visit to Victoria Gaol), an account of his visit to the colonial prison of Hong Kong. In this article he contrasted the cruel Spanish prison system with the modern and more humane prison system. He wrote an article entitled Colonisation du British North Borneo, par de Familles de Iles Philippines (Colonization of British north Borneo by families from the Philippine Islands) to elucidate his Borneo colonization project He elaborated on the same idea in another article in Spanish, Proyecto de Colonizacion del British North Borneo por los Filipinos (Project of the Colon ization of British North Borneo by the Filipinos) June 1892 he wrote La Mano Roja (The Red Hand) which denounces the frequent outbreaks of intentional fires in Manila. Constitution of the Liga Filipina printed in 1892, was the most important writing made by Rizal during his Hong Kong sojourn To deceived the Spanish authorities, the printed copies carries the dour information that the printing was done by the LONDON PRINTING PRESS, No. 25, Khulug Street, London. The idea of establishing the Liga Filipina was originally conceived by Jose Ma. Basa, but it was Rizal who wrote its constitution and realized its establishment.DECISION TO RETURN TO MANILAMay 1892 Rizal made up his mind to return to Manila The decision was spurred by the following 1.) To confer with Governor Despujol regarding his Borneo colonization project. 2.) To establish the Liga Filipina in Manila 3.) To prove that Eduardo de Lete was wrong in attacking him in Madrid that he being comfortable and safe in Hong Kong, h ad abandoned the countrys cause. Letes attack which was printed in La Solidaridad on April 15, 1892, portrayed Rizal as cowardly, egoistic, opportunistic a patriot in wordsonly. Rizal protested to Del Pilar sayingI am more persuade that yourself to be carried away. Friend or enemy, if the article has harmed me, it would harm more the interests of the Philippines. Who knows, however, if after all it was for the best it has shaken me awake, and long after a long tranquility I enter the field anew. .. I am going to activate the Propaganda again and fortify the Liga. To Ponce, Rizal confided on May 23, 1892I am very unfit that Del Pilar allowed the article to be published because it will lead many to mean that there is really a schism among us. I believe that we can well have little misunderstanding and personal differences among ourselves, without exhibiting them in public. . As for myself. . . I always welcome criticisms because they improve those who wish to be improved cash in ones chips HONG KONG LETTERSOn June 19, 1892 he spent his 31st birthday in Hong Kong.Evidently, he had premonition of his death, for the following day, June 20 he wrote two letters which he sealed, inscribed in each envelop to be opened after my death, and gave them to his friend, Dr. Marques for safekeeping. The first letter was addressed TO MY PARENTS, BRETHREN, AND FRIENDS, is as followsThe affection that I have ever professed for you suggests this step, and time alone can tell whether or not it is sensible. The outcome judges things according to the consequences but whether the result be favorable or unfavorable, it may always be said that duty urged me, so if I die in doing it, it will not matter.I realize how much suffering I have caused you yet I do not regret what I have done. Rather, if I had to begin over again I should do just the same, for what I have done has been only in pursuit of my duty. Gladly do I go to expose myself to peril, not as an expiation of misdeeds for in this matter I believe myself guiltless of any, but to complete my work and so that I, myself, may offer the examples of which I have always preached.A man ought to die for duty and his principles. I cause fast to every idea which I have advanced as to the condition and future of our country, and shall willingly die for it, and even more willingly sacrifice all to secure justice and peace for you. With pleasure, then, I risk life to save so many innocent persons so many nieces and nephews, so many children of friends, and children too of others who are not even friend who are suffering on my account. What am I? A bachelor, practically without a family and sufficiently undeceived as to life. I have had many disappointments and the future before me is gloomy, and will be gloomy if light does not illuminate it with dawn of a breach day for my native land.On the other hand, there are many persons, filled with hope and ambition, who perhaps might be happier if I were dead, and the n I hope my enemies would be satisfied and stop persecuting so many entirely innocent people. To a certain extent their hatred is justifiable as to myself, and my parents and relatives. Should fate go against me, you will all understand that I shall die happy in the thought that my death will end all your troubles. Return to our country and may you be happy in it. Till the last moment of my life I shall be thinking of you and compliments you all good fortune and happiness.The second letter was addressed TO THE FILIPINOS, and is as followsThe step which I am taking, or rather am about to take, is undoubtedly risky, and it is unnecessary to say that I have considered it for some time. I understand that almost every one is opposed to it but I know also that hardly anybody else understands what is in my heart. I cannot live on seeing so many suffer unjust persecution on my account I cannot bear the sight of my sisters and their numerous families treated like criminals. I prefer death a nd cheerfully shall relinquish life to free so many innocent persons from such unjust persecution.I appreciate the fact that at pose the future of our country gravitates in some degree around me, that at my death many will feel triumphant, and thus,many are now wishing for my fall. But what of it? I hold duties of conscience above all else. I have obligations to the families who suffer, to my aged parents whose sight strikes me to the heart I know that I alone, only my death can make them happy, returning them to their native land to a peaceful life at home. I am all my parents have, but our country has many more sons who can take my place and even do my work better.Besides I wish to show those who deny us the boon of patriotism that we know how to die for duty and principles. What matters death, if one dies for what one loves, for native land and beings held dear?If I thought that I were the only resource for the consummation of a policy of progress in the Philippines and were I c onvinced that my countrymen were going to make use of my services, perhaps, I should hesitate about taking this step but there are others who can take my place, who can do my services that are not utilize, and I am reduced to inactivity.Always have I loved our hard-pressed land, and I am sure that I shall continue loving it till my last moment, in case men prove unjust to me. My career, my life, my happiness and all I have sacrificed for love of it. Whatever my fate I shall die blessing it and longing for the dawn of its redemption.June 21, 1892 Rizal penned another letter in HK for Governor Despujol. In this letter, he informed the governor general of his coming to Manila and placed himself under the protection of the Spanish government. June 21, 1892 (On the same date) Rizal and his sister Lucia left HK for Manila. They carried a excess passport or safe-conduct issued by the Spanish consul-general in Hong Kong.RIZAL FALLS INTO SPANISH TRAPThe Spanish consul-general sent a cab legram to Governor Despujol that the victim is in the trap. On the same day a secret case was filed in Manila against Rizal and his followers for anti-religious and anti-patriotic agitation Despujol ordered his secretary, Luis de la Torre, to find out ifRizal was naturalized as a German citizen, as was rumored, so that he might take proper action against on who had the protection of a self-coloured nation Meanwhile, Rizal and his sister were peacefully crossing the China Sea. They were fully unaware of the Spanish duplicity.

Pakistan Study

Ar-Raheeq Al-Makhtum (The Sealed Nectar) By Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri CONTENTS Location and nature of Arab Tribes Location of the Arabs Arab Tribes Rulership and Princeship among the Arabs Rulership in Ye hands Rulership in Heerah Rulership in Geographical Syria Rulership in Hijaz T he Reasons of this fight fall(a) in been illustrated in three versions Rulership in Pan-Arabia The political countenance Religions of the Arabs The Religious situation Aspects of Pre- Moslem Arabian Society Social life of the Arabs The Economic Situation The Lineage and Family of Muhammad (Peace be upon him)The prophetic Family Muhammads possess and Forty years prior Prophethood His Birth B abyhood B ack to his passionate M new(prenominal) To His compassionate Grand obtain Bahira, the Monk The Sacrilegious wars Al-Fudoul confederacy Muhammads Early Job His Marriage to Khadijah Rebuilding Al-Kabah and the arbitrament Issue A Rapid Review of Muhammads Biography let come forward front commissioni ng of the Prophethood In the Shade of the Message and Prophethood In the Cave of Hira Gabriel brings down the manifestation Interruption of Revelation Once more, Gabriel brings Allahs RevelationS ome details pertinent to the successive stages of Revelation Pro title of respecting Allah, the All-High and the Immediate Constituents degrees and stages of the c tot everyy The starting signal Stage Strife in the mode of the Call Three years of Secret Call The Early Converts As-Salat (the Prayer) T he Quraishites learn virtually the Call The cooperate Phase, Open Preaching First Revelation regarding the Preaching Calling the Closest Kins mountain On Mount As -Safa Shouting the Truth and the Polytheists Reaction An Advisory Council to debar Pilgrims from Muhammads Call feats do to check the Onward March of Islam Persecutions The House of Al-Arqum The First Migration to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) Quraishs Machination a createst the Emigrants Once more Quraish approaches Abu Talib The Tyra nts Decision to kill the Prophet (Peace be upon him) The Conversion of Hamzah salt international Abdul-Muttalib The Conversion of Umar stash away Al-Khattab Q uraishs Representative negotiates with the messenger of Allah (Peace be upon him) Abu Talib assmbles Bani Hashim and Bani Al-Muttalib General Social Boycott A Pact of Injustice and Aggression The Final Phase of the Diplomacy of Negotiation The Year of Grief Abu Talibs DeathK hadijah passes away to the Mercy of Allah H is Marriage to Sawdah (May be enrapture with her) in Shawwal, the tenth year of Prophethood Factors excite patience and perserverance The Third Phase Calling unto Is lam beyond Makkah Islam being introduced to Arabian Tribes and Individuals Hope inspiring Breezes from the Madinese Marriage of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) to Aisha (May Allah be please with her) Al-Isra and Al-Mirraj The First Aqabah Pledge The Muslim Envoy in Madinah T he Second Aqabah Pledge The Vanguard of Migration (in the Cause of All ah) In An-Nadwah (Council) HouseThe Parliament of Quraish Migration of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) Life in Madinah The First Phase The Status Quo in Madinah at the Time of Emigration A New Society being built A Charter of Islamic Alliance A Cooperation and Non-Aggression P act with the Jews The Prophet on the Battlefield Pre-Badr Missions and trespasss The Battle of Badr The First Decisive Battle in the account of Islam Reason of the Battle more or less Significant Instances of Devotion Reaction in Makkah Madinah receives the News of Victory The Battle of Badr in its Quranic Context The Military Activities between Badr and UhudAl-Kudr Invasion An Attempt on the Life of the Prophet (Peace be upon him) Invasion of Bani Qainuqa T he Qainuqa Jews breach the Covenant As-Sawiq Invasion Dhi Amr Invasion Kab stash away Al-Ashraf, killed 3 The Invasion of Buhran Z aid stash away Harithah jazzs a Compaign on the Trade Routes of Quraish The Battle of Uhud A Consultation Assembly fo r a Defence Plan Dividing the Islamic array into phalanxes and Departure to the Battlefield Para ding the Army P assing the Night between Uhud and Madinah The Rebellion of Abdullah store Ubai and his Followers The Remainder of the Islamic Army are on the Move to UhudThe Defence Plan The Messenger of Allah (Peace b e upon him) implants the Spirit of Bravery among his Armed Forces Recruitment of the Makkan Army Political Manoeuvres of Quraish T he effort of Quraishite women at waging the Zeal of Men T he Combat A ssassination of Asadullah (the Lion of Allah) Hamzah salt away Abdul Muttalib Bringing the Situation under take take up From his wifes lap to Sword -fights and Sorrows The Contri besidesion of the Archers squad to the Battle. The Archerss Fatal Mistake The Most Awkward Hour in the Messengers Life Multilation of the Martyrs Burial of the Martyrs Hamra Al-Asad InvasionT he Observations of the grand Quran on the Battle of Uhud L essons and Moralities Military Platoons and Missions between the Battle of Uhud and the Battle of the Confederates Abi Salamah Mission An Errand led by Abdullah stash away Unais The Event of Ar-Raji The Tragedy of Mauna Well Bani An-Nadeer Invasion The Invasion of Najd The Invasion of Badr, the Second The Invasion of Doumat Al-Jaudal Al-Ahzab (the Confederates) Invasion Invading Banu Quraiza Military Activities continued Bani Lihyan Invasion E xpeditions and Delegations continued Bani Al-Mustaliq (Muraisi) Ghazwah Shaban 6 Hijri The treacherous Role of the HypocritesP rior to the Bani Al-Mustaliq Ghazwah T he wicked Role they contend in the Course of the Ghazwah of Bani Al-Mustaliq The S debarker Affair Delegations and Expeditions pursuance Al-Muraisi Ghazwah Al-Hudaibiyah Treaty (Dhul Qudah 6 A. H. ) Al-Hudaibiya Treaty Socio Political Impact The Second Stage A N ew Phase of Islamic Action T he Prophets Plans to spread the Message of Islam to beyond Arabia A Deputation to Abyssinia (Ethiopia) L etter to the Vicegerent of Egypt, called Muqawqas A earn to chosroes, Emperor of Persia The Envoy to Caesar, King of capital of Italy 4 A Letter to Mundhir lay in Sawa, G everywherenor of BahrainA Letter to Haudha put in Ali, Governor of Yamama A Letter to Harith stack away Abi Shamir Al-Ghassani, King of Damascus A Letter to the King of Oman, Jaifer, and his Bother Abd Al-Jalandi P ost-Hudaibiyah Hostilities Dhu Qarad Invasion The Conquest of Khaibar (in Moharram, 7 A. H. ) The Actual operation begins T he Second Part of Khaibar Conquered N egotiations Distribution of Spoils spasmodic Invasions The Expedition called Dhat-ur-Riqa (in the year 7 A. H. ) T he Compensatory Umrah (Lesser voyage) The Battle of Mutah Dhat As-Salasil Compaign Khadrah Campaign T he Conquest of Makkah Pre-conquest EventsP reparations for the Attach on Makkah, and the Prophets Attempt at imposing a News Black-out The Third Stage Hunain Ghazwah The Enemys march and their Encampment at Awtas T he war-experienced Man wongs the draw ing cards Judgement R econnoitering the Weapons of the Messenger of Allah(Peace be upon him) R econnoitering the Enemys Weapons The Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) leaves Makkah for Hunain The Islamic Army stunned the Archers and the Attackers Muslims return to the Battlefield, and the craze of the Fight R everse of Fortunes and the Enemys utter Defeat Hot pursuit of the Enemy Taif CompaignThe Distribution of the Booty at al-Jiranah The Helpers (Al-Ansar) are impetuous at the Messenger of Allah (Peace be upon him) Arrival of the Hawazin Delegation Lesser pilgrims voyage (Al-Umrah ) to Makkah and leaving for Madinah M issions and Platoons aft(prenominal) the Conquest T he Platoons The Invasion of Tabuk in Rajab, in the year 9 A. H. The underlying Reasons G eneral News about the Byzantines and Ghassanide Preparations for War P articular News about the Byzantine and Ghassanide preparations for War The Muslim Army is leaving for Tabuk The Army of Islam at Tabuk Returning to M adinah T he People Who lagged BehindThe Invasion of Tabuk and its Far-Reaching Ramifications The Quranic Verses Relating to this Invasion Some Important Events that featured that Year Abu Bakr performs the Pilgrimage A Meditation on the Ghazawat People embrace the Religion of Allah in Large Crowds T he Delegations The Success and Impact of the Call The Fare head Pilgrimage 5 The Last Expeditions The Journey to Allah, the Sublime Symptoms of Farewell T he Start of the Di sease T he Last Week F ive years before death F our days before his death A Day or Two prior to Death A Day before his Death The Last day Alive T he Prophet (Peace be upon him) breathes his LastThe companions concern over the Prophets Death Umars military strength Abu Bakrs Attitude B urial and Farewell Preparations to his Honourable Body The mantic Household The Prophet (Peace be upon him), Attributes and Manners Beauty of creation The ne plus ultra of Soul and Nobility 6 Location and Nature of Arab Tribes Beyon d a shadow of doubt, the biography of Prophet Muhammad (Peace be upon him) manifestedly represents an exhaustive embodiment of the sublime noble Message that he communicated in order to deliver the human race from the swamp of darkness and polytheism to the paradise of light and monotheism.An image, au hencetic as well as comprehensive, of this Message is in that locationof totally attainable by dint of careful study and profound analysis of two backgrounds and issues of such(prenominal) a biography. In view of this, a consentaneous chapter is here introduced about the nature and development of Arab kinsfolks prior to Islam as well as the circumstantial environment that enwrapped the Prophets mission. placement OF THE ARABS L inguistically, the word Arab essence deserts and waste barren land well-nigh urineless and guideless.Ever since the dawn of explanation, the Arabian Peninsula and its bulk have been called as such. The Arabian Peninsula is enclosed in the west by the Red Sea and Sinai, in the east by the Arabian Gulf, in the south by the Arabian Sea, which is an cite of the Indian Ocean, and in the north by old Syria and part of Iraq. The area is estimated between a million and a million and a quarter forthrightly miles. Thanks to its geographical position, the peninsula has always maintained great vastness..Considering its internal crashting, it is or soly deserts and sandy places, which has rendered it inaccessible to foreigners and invaders, and allowed its hoi polloi complete liberty and independence through the ages, condescension the presence of 2 neighbouring great empires. Its external setting, on the other hand, ca employ it to be the centre of the old world and provided it with sea and land links with intimately nations at the snip. Thanks to this strategic position the Arabian Peninsula had become the centre for trade, culture, religion and art. ARAB TRIBESArab kin tribe have been divided according to lineage into three groups Perishing Arabs The ancient Arabs, of whose history little is known, and of whom were Ad, Thamud, Tasam, Jadis, Emlaq, and others. Pure Arabs Who originated from the progeny of Yarub bin Yashjub bin Qahtan. They were also called Qahtanian Arabs. Arabized Arabs Who originated from the progeny of pariah. They were also called Adnanian Arabs. The pure Arabs the people of Qahtan originally lived in Yemen and comprised many an(prenominal) tribes, two of which were very famous 1. Himyar The most famous of whose septs were Zaid Al-Jamhur, Qudaa and Sakasic. . Kahlan The most famous of whose septs were Hamdan, Anmar, Tai, Mudhhij, Kinda, Lakhm, Judham, Azd, Aws, Khazraj and the descendants of Jafna the top executives of old Syria. Kahlan septs emigrated from Yemen to dwell in the different parts of the Arabian Peninsula prior to the Great Flood (Sail Al-Arim of Marib Dam), due to the failure of trade under the Roman wardrobe and domain on both sea and land trade routes followin g Roman occupation of Egypt and Syria. Naturally enough, the competition between Kahlan and Himyar led to the evacuation of the primary and the settlement of the consequence in Yemen.THE EMIGRATING SEPTS OF KAHLAN corporation BE INTO FOUR GROUPS 1 . Azd Who, under the lead of Imran bin Amr Muzaiqba, wandered in Yemen, sent pi aneers and finally headed northwards. Details of their emigration can be summed up as follows 7 2. Thalabah bin Amr leave his tribe Al-Azd for Hijaz and dwelt between Thalabiyah and Dhi Qar. When he gained strength, he headed for Madinah where he stayed. Of his seed are Aws and Khazraj, sons of Haritha bin Thalabah. Haritha bin Amr, known as Khuzaa, wandered with his folks in Hijaz until they came to Mar Az-Zahran.Later, they conquered the Haram, and colonized in Makkah later(prenominal) having driven away its people, the tribe of Jurhum. Imran bin Amr and his folks went to Oman where they established the tribe of Azd whose children inhabited Tihama and were known as Azd-of-Shanua. Jafna bin Amr and his family, headed for Syria where he settled and initiated the kingdom of Ghassan who was so named after a spring of water, in Hijaz, where they s topped on their way to Syria. 2. Lakhm and Judham Of whom was Nasr bin Rabia, father of Manadhira, Kings of Heerah. 3.Banu Tai Who also emigrated northwards to settle by the so- called Aja and Salma Mountains which were consequently named as Tai Mountain s. 4. Kinda Who dwelt in Bahrain but were expelled to Hadramout and Najd where they instituted a powerful regimen but not for long , for the whole tribe soon faded away. another(prenominal) tribe of Himyar, known as Qudaa, also left Yemen and dwelt in Samawa semidesert on the borders of Iraq. The Arabized Arabs go back in ancestry to their great grandfather Abraham (Peace be upon him) from a town called Ar come Kufa on the west bank of the Euphrates in Iraq.Excavations brought to light great details of the town, Abrahams family, and the p revalent religions and social circumstances. It is known that Abrahaml (Peace be upon him) eft Ar for Harran and then for Palestine, which he do headquarters for his Message. He wandered all over the area. When he went to E gypt, the Pharaoh tried to do evil to his wife Sarah, but Allah saved her and the Pharaohs wicked scheme recoiled on him. He therefrom came to realize her strong attachment to Allah, and, in acknowledgment of her grace, the Pharaoh rendered his daughter Hagar at Sarahs service, but Sarah gave Hagar to Abraham as a wife.Abraham returned to Palestine where Hagar gave birth to castaway. Sarah became so overjealous of Hagar that she forced Abraham to send Hagar and her handle away to a plantless valley on a small hill in Hijaz, by the reverend House, exposed to the eating away of floods coming right and left. He chose for them a place under a lofty tree above Zamzam near the upper side of the Mosque in Makkah where incomplete people nor water was available, an d went back to Pale stine leaving with his wife and baby a leather case with some dates and a pot of water.Not before long, they ran out of both food and water, but thanks to Allahs favour water gushed forth to sustain them for some eon. The whole story of Zamzam spring is already known to everybody. Another Yemeni tribe Jurhum the Second came and lived in Makkah upon Hagars permission, after being said to have lived in the valleys around Makkah. It is menti unitaryd in the Sahih Al-Bukhari that this tribe came to Makkah before Ishmael was a young man piece they had passed through that valley long before this event. Abraham used to go to Makkah every now and then to see his wife and son.The number of these journeys is still unknown, but authentic historical resources spoke of four wizards. Allah, the Sublime, stated in the Noble Quran that He had Abraham see, in his dream, that he slaughtered his son Ishmael, and therefore Abraham stood up to fulfill His Order Then, when they h ad both submitted themselves (to the Will of Allah), and he had laid him prostrate on his forehead (or on the side of his forehead for slaughtering) and We called out to him O Abraham You have fulfilled the dream (vision) VerilyThus do we reward the Muhsinun (good-doers, who perform good deeds totally for Allahs sake only, without any see off or to gain praise or fame, etc. and do them in accordance to Allahs Orders). Verily, that indeed was a manifest trial and We change him with a great consecrate (i. e. a ram) 37103-107 8 It is mentioned in the Genesis that Ishmael was thirteen years older than his brother Ishaq. The sequence of the story of the sacrifice of Ishmael shows that it really happened before Ishaqs birth, and that Allahs Promise to give Abraham another son, Ishaq, came a fter narration of the whole story.This story spoke of one journey at least before Ishmael became a young man. Al-Bukhari, on the authority of Ibn Abbas, reported the other three journeys a summa ry of which goes as follows When Ishmael became a yo ung man, he learned Arabic at the hand of the tribe of Jurhum, who loved him with great admiration and gave him one of their women as a wife, soon after his mother died. Having wanted to see his wife and son again, Abraham came to Makkah, Ishmaels marriage, but he didnt find him at home. He asked Ishmaels wife about her husband and how they were doing.She complained of poverty, so he asked her to govern Ishmael to change his doorstep. Ishmael understood the message, divorced his wife and got married to the daughter of Mudad bin Amr, chief of the tribe of Jurhum. Once more, Abraham came to see his son, but again didnt find him at home. He asked his new wife the kindred previous question, to which she thanked Allah. Abraham asked her to tell Ishmael to keep his doorstep (i. e. to keep her as wife) and went back to Palestine. A third time, Abraham came to Makkah to find Ishmael sharpening an arrow under a lofty tree near Zamzam.The meeting, after a very long journey of separation, was very touching for a father so affectionate and a so duteous and righteous son. This time, father and son built Al-Kabah and raised its pillars, and Abraham, in compliance with Allahs Commandment, called unto people to make pilgrimage to it. By the grace of Allah, Ishmael had xii sons from the daughter of Mudad, whose names were Nabet, Qidar, Edbael, Mebsham, Mishma, Duma, Micha, Hudud, Yetma, Yetour, Nafis and Qidman, and who ultimately formed twelve tribes inhabiting Makkah and trading between Yemen, geographical Syria and Egypt.Later on, these tribes spread all over, and even outside, the peninsula. All their tidings went into oblivion pull up for the descendants of Nabet and Qidar. The Nabeteans sons of Nabet established a flourishing polish in the north of Hijaz, they instituted a powerful government which spread out its domain over all neighbouring tribes, and made Petra their capital. Nobody dared challenge their auth ority until the Romans came and managed to eliminate their kingdom. After extensive research and painstaking investigation, Mr.Sulaiman An-Nadwi came to the conclusion that the Ghassanide kings, along with the Aws and Khazraj were not likely to be Qahtanians but rather Nabeteans. Descendants of Qidar, the son of Ishmael, lived long in Makkah increasing in number, of them issued Adnan and son Maad, to whom Adnanian Arabs traced back their ancestry. Adnan is the twenty-first grandfather in the series of the Prophetic ancestry. It was said that whenever Prophet Muhammad Oai Caaa Uaia ? Oaa spoke of his ancestry he would stop at Adnan and say Genealogists tell lies and did not go farther than him.A group of scholars, however, favoured the probability of dismissal beyond Adnan attaching no significance to the aforementioned Prophetic Hadith. They went on to say that there were exactly forty fathers between Adnan and Abraham (Peace be upon them). Nizar, Maads only son , had four sons who branched out into four great tribes Eyad, Anmar, Rabia and Mudar. These fail two sub-branched into several septs. Rabia fathered Asad, Anazah, Abdul Qais, and Wails two sons (Bakr and Taghlib), Hanifa and many others. Mudar tribes branched out into two great divisions Qais Ailan bin Mudar and septs of Elias bin Mudar.Of Qais Ailan were the Banu Saleem, Banu Hawazin, and Banu Ghatafan of whom descended Abs, Zubyan, Ashja and Ghani bin Asur. Of Elias bin Mudar were Tamim bin Murra, Hudhail bin Mudrika, Banu Asad bin Khuzaimah and septs of Kinana bin Khuzaimah, of whom came Quraish, the descendants of Fahr bin Malik bin An-Nadr bin Kinana. Quraish branched out into various tribes, the most famous of whom were Jumah, Sahm, Adi, Makhzum, Tayim, Zahra and the three septs of Qusai bin Kilab Abdud-Dar bin Qusai, Asad bin Abdul Uzza bin Qusai and Abd Manaf bin Qusai. Abd Manaf branched out into four tribes Abd Shams, Nawfal, Muttalib and Hashim. It is, however, from the family of Hashim th at Allah selected Prophet Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Abdul-Muttalib bin Hashim (Peace be upon him). Prophet Mu hammad (Peace be upon him) said Allah selected Ishmael from the sons of Abraham, Kinana from the sons of Ishmael, Quraish from the sons of Kinana, Hashim from the sons of Quraish and He selected me from the sons of Hashim. Al-Abbas bin Abdul-Muttalib quoted the Messenger of Allah (Peace be upon him) as saying 9 Allah created mankind and chose me from the best whereof, He chose the tribes and selected me from the best whereof and He chose families and selected me from the best whereof. I am the very best in person and family. Having amplifyd in number, children of Adnan, in pursuit of pastures and water, spread out over various parts of Arabia. The tribe of Abdul Qais, together with some septs of Bakr bin Wail and Tamim, emigrated to Bahrain where they dwelt. Banu Hanifa bin Sab bin Ali bin Bakr went to settle in Hijr, the capital of Yamama. All the tribes of Bakr bin Wa il lived in an area of land which ncluded Yamama, Bahrain, Saif Kazima, the sea shore, the outer borders of Iraq, Ablah and Hait. Most of the tribe of Taghlib lived in the Euphrates area while some of them lived with Bakr. Banu Tamim lived in Basra semi-desert. Banu Saleem lived in the vicinity of Madinah on the land stretching from Wadi Al-Qura to Khaibar ahead to the eastern mountains to Harrah. Thaqif dwelt in Taif and Hawazin east of Makkah near Autas on the road from Makkah to Basra. Banu Asad lived on the land east of Taima and west of Kufa, while family of Tai lived between Banu Asad and Taima. They were fivesome -day-walk far from Kufa.Zubyan inhabited the p flock of and between Taima and Hawran. Some septs of Kinana lived in Tihama, while septs of Quraish dwelt in Makkah and its suburbs. Quraish remained completely dis linked until Qusai bin Kilab managed to rally their ranks on honourable name attaching major prominence to their status and importance. 10 RULERSHIP AND P RINCESHIPAMONG THE ARABS W hen talking about the Arabs before Islam,we deem it necessary to draw a mini-picture of the history of rulership, princeship, sectarianism and the religious dominations of the Arabs, so as to facilitate the understanding of emergent circumstances when Islam appeared.When the sun of Islam rose, rulers of Arabia were of two kinds crowned kings, who were in circumstance not independent and heads of tribes and clans, who enjoyed the same authorities and privileges possessed by crowned kings and were mostly independent, though some of whom could have shown some kind of submission to a crowned king. The crowned kings were only those of Yemen, Heerah and Ghassan. All other rulers of Arabia were non-crowned. RULERSHIP IN YEMEN T he folks of Sheba were one of the oldest nations of the pure Arabs, who lived in Yemen. Excavations at Or brought to light their existence twenty ive centuries B. C. Their civilization flourished, and their domain spread eleven centuries B. C. It is possible to divide their ages according to the following estimation 1. The centuries before 650 B. C. , during which their kings were called Makrib Sheba. Their capital was Sarwah, also known as Khriba, whose ruins lie in a spot, a days walk from the western side of Marib. During this period, they started building the Dam of Marib which had great importance in the history of Yemen. Sheba was also said to have h ad so great a domain that they had colonies inside and outside Arabia. . From 650 B. C. until 115 B. C. During this era, they gave up the name Makrib and assumed the designation of Kings of Sheba. They also made Marib their capital instead of Sarwah. The ruins of Marib lie at a length of sixty miles east of Sana. 3. From 115 B. C. until 300 A. D. During this period, the tribe of Himyar conquered the kingdom of Sheba and took Redan for capital instead of Marib. Later on, Redan was called Zifar. Its ruins still lie on Mudawwar Mountain near the town of Yarim. Durin g this period, they began to decline and fall.Their trade failed to a very great extent, firstly, because of the Nabetean domain over the north of Hijaz secondly, because of the Roman superiority over the naval trade routes after the Roman conquest of Egypt, Syria and the north of Hijaz and thirdly, because of the inter-tribal warfare. Thanks to the three above -mentioned factors, families of Qahtan were disunited and scatteredout. 4. From 300 A. D. until Islam dawned on Yemen. This period witnessed a lot of disorder and turmoil. The great many and civil wars rendered the people of Yemen liable to foreign subjection and hence loss of independence.During this era, the Romans conquered Adn and even helped the Abyssinians (Ethiopians) to occupy Yemen for the first time in 340 A. D. , making use of the ageless intra -tribal conflict of Hamdan and Himyar. The Abyssinian (Ethiopian) occupation of Yemen lasted until 378 A. D. , whereafter Yemen regained it s independence. Later on, cracks began to show in Marib Dam which led to the Great Flood (450 or 451 A. D. ) mentioned in the Noble Quran. This was a great event which caused the fall of the entire Yemeni civilization and the dispersal of the nations livin g therein. In 523, DhuNawas, a Jew, despatched a great campaign against the Christians of Najran in order to force them to convert into Judaism. Having refused to do so, they were thrown alive into a big ditch where a great fire had been set. The Quran referred to this event Cursed were the people of the ditch. 854 This aroused great wrath among the Christians, and especially the Roman emperors, who not only instigated the Abyssinians (Ethiopians) against Arabs but also assembled a large fleet which helped the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) army, of seventy thousand warriors, to execution a second conquest of Yemen in 525 A. D. under the leadership of Eriat, who was granted rulership over Yemen, a position he held until he was assassinated by one of his army leaders, Abraha, who, after rapprochement with the king of Abyssinia, took rulership over Yemen and, later on, deployed his soldiers to demolish AlKabah, and , hence, he and his soldiers came to be known as the Men of the Elephant. 11 After the Elephant incident, the people of Yemen, under the leadership of Madikarib bin Saif Dhu Yazin Al-Himyari, and through Persian assistance, revolted against the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) invaders, restored independence and appointed Madikarib as their king.However, Madikarib was assassinated by an Abyssinian (Ethiopian) he used to have him around for service and protection. The family of Dhu Yazin was thus deprived of royalty forever. Kisra, the Persian king, appointed a Persian ruler over Sana and thus made Yeme n a Persian colony. Persian rulers maintained rulership of Yemen until Badhan, the last of them, embraced Islam in 638 A. D. , thus terminating the Persian domain over Yemen. RULERSHIP IN HEERAH Ever since Korosh the Great (557-529 B. C. ) united the Persians, they commandIraq and its neighbourhood. Nobody could shake off their authority until Alexander the Great vanquished their king Dara I and thus subdued the Persians in 326 B. C. Persian lands were thenceforth divided and ruled by kings known as the Kings of Sects, an era which lasted until 230 A. D. Meanwhile, the Qahtanians occupied some Iraqi territories, and were later followed by some Adnanians who managed to share some parts of Mesopotamia with them. The Persians, under the leadership of Ardashir, who had established the Sasanian state in 226 A.D, regained enough unity and power to subdue the Arabs living in the vicinity of their kingdom, and force Qudaa to leave for Syria , leaving the people of Heerah and Anbar under the Persian domain. During the time of Ardashir, Juzaima Alwaddah exercised rulership over Heerah, Rabia and Mudar, and Mesopotamia. Ardashir had reckoned that it was impossible for him to rule the Arabs directly and prevent them from attacking his borders unless he appointed as king one of them who enjoyed support and power of his tribe. He had also seen that he could make use of them against the Byzantine kings who always used to harass him.At the same time, the Arabs of Iraq could face the Arabs of Syria who were in the hold of Byzantine kings. However, he deemed it fit to keep a Persian battalion under command of the king of Heerah to be used against those Arabs who might rebel against him. After the death of Juzaima around 268 A. D. , Amr bin Adi bin Nasr Al-Lakhmi was appointed as king by the Persian King Sabour bin Ardashir. Amr was the first of the Lakhmi kings who ruled Heerah until the Persians appointed Qabaz bin Fairuz in whose reign appeared someone called Mazdak, who called for dissoluteness in social life.Qabaz, and many of his subjects, embraced Mazdaks religion and even called upon the king of Heerah, Al-Munzir bin Ma As-Sama, to follow after. When the latter(prenominal), because of his superbia and self-resp ect, rejected their orders, Qabaz discharged him and nominated Harith bin Amr bin Hajar Al-Kindi, who had accepted the Mazdaki doctrine. No sooner did Kisra Anu Shairwan succeed Qabaz than he, due to hatred of Mazdaks philosophy, killed Mazdak and many of his followers, restored Munzir to the throne of Heerah and gave orders to tantalise under arrest Harith ho sought refuge with Al-Kalb tribe where he spent the rest of his life. Sons of Al-Munzir bin Ma As-Sama maintained kingship a long time until An-Numan bin Al-Munzir took over. Because of a calumny naturale by Zaid bin Adi Al-Abbadi, the Persian king got angry with An-Numan and summoned him to his palace. An -Numan went secretly to Hani bin Masud, chief of Shaiban tribe, and left his wealth and family under the latters protection, and then presented himself before the Persian king, who immediately threw him into prison where he perished.Kisra, then, appointed Eyas bin Qubaisa At-Tai as king of Heerah. Eyas was ordered to tell Hani bin Masud to deliver An-Numans charge up to Kisra. No sooner than had the Persian king received the fanatically motivated rejection on the part of the Arab chief, he declared war against the tribe of Shaiban and mobilized his troops and warriors under the leadership of King Eyas to a place called Dhee Qar which witnessed a most hazardous battle wherein the Persians were severely routed by the Arabs for the first time in history.That was very soon after the birth of Prophet Muhammad Oai Caaa Uaia ? Oaa eight months after Eyas bin Qubaisahs rise to power over Heerah. After Eyas, a Persian ruler was appointed over Heerah, but in 632 A. D. the authority there returned to the family of Lukhm when Al-Munzir Al-Marur took over. Hardly had the latters reign lasted for eight months when Khalid bin Al-Waleed fell upon him with Muslim soldiers. RULERSHIP IN GEOGRAPHICAL SYRIAI n the process of the tribal emigrations, some septs of Qudaa reached the borders of Syria where they settled d own. They belonged to the family of Sulaih bin Halwan, of whose offspring were the sons of Dujam bin Sulaih known as Ad -Dujaima. Such septs of Qudaa were used by the Byzantines in the defence of the Byzantine borders against both Arab Bedouin raiders and the Persians, and enjoyed autonomy for a considerable phase of time which is said to have lasted for the whole second century A. D. One of their most famous kings was Zyiad bin Al-Habula.Their authority however came to an end upon defeat by the Ghassanides who were consequently granted the proxy rulership over the Arabs of Syria and had Dumat Al-Jandal as their headquarters, which lasted until 12 the battle of Yarmuk in the year 13 A. H. Their last king Jabala bin Al-Aihum embraced Islam during the reign of the Chief of Believers, Umar bin Al-Khattab (May Allah be pleased with him). RULERSHIP IN HIJAZ Ishmael (Peace be upon him) administered authority over Makkah as well as custodianship of the Holy Sanctuary throughout his lifetim e.Upon his death, at the age of 137, two of his sons, Nabet and Qidar, succeeded him. Later on, their maternal grandfather, Mudad bin Amr Al-Jurhumi took over, thus beamring rulership over Makkah to the tribe of Jurhum, preserving a venerable position, though very little authority for Ishmaels sons due to their fathers exploits in building the Holy Sanctuary, a position they held until the decline of the tribe of Jurhum trivially before the rise of Bukhtanassar.The political role of the Adnanides had begun to gain firmer grounds in Makkah, which could be clearly attested by the fact that upon Bukhtanassars first invasion of the Arabs in Dhati Irq, the leader of the Arabs was not from Jurhum. Upon Bukhtanassars second invasion in 587 B. C. , however, the Adnanides were frightened out to Yemen, while Burmia An-Nabi fled to Syria with Maad, but when Bukhtanassars pressure lessened, Maad returned to Makkah to find none of the tribe of Jurhum except Jursham bin Jalhamah, whose daughter , Muana, was habituated to Maad as wife who, later, had a son by him named Nizar.On account of laborious living conditions and destitution prevalent in Makkah, the tribe of Jurhum began to ill-treat visitors of the Holy Sanctuary and extort its funds, which aroused resentment and hatred of the Adnanides (sons of Bakr bin Abd Munaf bin Kinana) who, with the help of the tribe of Khuzaa that had come to settle in a neighbouring area called Marr Az -Zahran, invaded Jurhum and frightened them out of Makkah leaving rulership to Qudaa in the spirit of the second century A. D. Upon leaving Makkah, Jurhum filled up the well of Zamzam, levelled its place and buried a great many things in it. Amr bin Al-Harith bin Mudad Al-Jurhumi was reported by Ibn Ishaq, the wellknown historian, to have buried the two gold deer together with the Black Stone as well as a lot of jewelry and swords in Zamzam, prior to their sorrowful escape to Yemen. Ishmaels epoch is estimated to have lasted for twenty cen turies B. C. , which means that Jurhum stayed in Makkah for twenty-one centuries and held rulership there for about twenty centuries. Upon defeat of Jurhum, the tribe of Khuzaa monopolized rulership over Makkah. Mudar tribes, however, enjoyed three privileges The First Leading pilgrims from Arafat to Muzdalifah and then from minah to the Aqabah Stoning Pillar. This was the authority of the family of Al-Ghawth bin Murra, one of the septs of Elias bin Mudar, who were called waiting area. This privilege meant that the pilgrims were not allowed to throw stones at Al-Aqabah until one of the Sofa men did that. When they had finished stoning and wanted to leave the valley of Mina, Sofa men stood on the two sides of Al-Aqabah and nobody would pass that position until the men of Sofa passed and cleared the way for the pilgrims.When Sofa perished, the family of Sad bin Zaid Manat from Tamim tribe took over. The Second Al-Ifadah (leaving for Mina after Muzdalifah) on sacrifice morning, and th is was the responsibility of the family of Adwan. The Third Deferment of the sacred months, and this was the responsibility of the family of Tamim bin Adi from Bani Kinana. Khuzaas reign in Makkah lasted for three 100 years, during which, the Adnanides spread all over Najd and the sides of Bahrain and Iraq, while small septs of Quraish remained on the sides of Makkah they were Haloul, Harum and some families of Kinana.They enjoyed no privileges in Makkah or in the Sacred House until the coming into court of Qusai bin Kila b, whose father is said to have died when he was still a baby, and whose mother was subsequently married to Rabia bin Haram, from the tribe of Bani Udhra. Rabia took his wife and her baby to his homeland on the borders of Syria. When Qusai became a young man, he returned to Makkah, which was ruled by Halil bin Habsha from Khuzaa, who gave Qusai his daughter, Hobba, as wife. After Halils death, a war between Khuzaa and Quraish broke out and resulted in Qusais takin g hold of Makkah and the Sacred House.THE REASONS OF THIS WAR HAVE BEEN ILLUSTRATED IN THREE VERSIONS The First Having noticed the spread of his offspring, increase of his property and exalt of his honour after Halils death, Qusai found himself more entitled to shoulder responsibility of rulership over Makkah and custodianship of the Sacred House than the tribes of Khuzaa and Bani Bakr. He also advocated that Quraish were the chiefs of Ishmaels descendants. Therefore he consulted some men from Quraish and Kinana concerning his desire to evacuate Khuzaa and Bani Bakr from Makkah. They took a liking to his opinion and supported him. 13The Second Khuzaa claimed that Halil requested Qusai to hold custodianship of Al-Kabah and rulership over Makkah after his death. The Third Halil g ave the right of Al-Kabah service to his daughter Hobba and appointed Abu Ghabshan Al-Khuzai to function as her instrument whereof. Upon Halils death, Qusai bought this right for a leather bag of wine, whic h aroused dissatisfaction among the men of Khuzaa a nd they tried to keep the custodianship of the Sacred House away from Qusai. The latter, however, with the help of Quraish and Kinana, managed to take over and even to expel Khuzaa completely from Makkah.Whatever the truth might have been, the whole affair resulted in the deprivation of Sofa of their privileges, previously mentioned, evacuation of Khuzaa and Bakr from Makkah and transfer of rulership over Makkah and custodianship of the Holy Sanctuary to Qusai, after fierce wars between Qusai and Khuzaa inflicting heavy casualties on both sides, reconciliation and then arbitration of Yamur bin Awf, from the tribe of Bakr, whose judgement entailed eligibility of Qusais rulership over Makkah and custodianship of the Sacred House, Qusais irresponsibility for Khuzaas line of lop shed, and imposition of blood money on Khuzaa.Qusais reign over Makkah and the Sacred House began in 440 A. D. and allowed him, and Quraish afterwards, absol ute rulership over Makkah and undisputed custodianship of the Sacred House to which Arabs from all over Arabia came to pay homage. Qusai brought his kinspeople to Makkah and allocated it to them, allowing Quraish some dwellings there. An-Nusa, the families of Safwan, Adwan, Murra bin Awf preserved the same rights they used to enjoy before his arrival.A significant achievement credited to Qusai was the establishment of An -Nadwa House (an assembly sign) on the northern side of Al-Kabah Mosque, to serve as a meeting place for Quraish. This very house had benefited Quraish a lot because it secured unity of opinions amongst them and cordial solution to their problem. QUSAI notwithstanding ENJOYED THE FOLLONG PRIVILEGED OF LEADERSHIP AND HONOUR 1 .Presiding over An -Nadwa House meetings where consultations relating to undecomposed issues were conducted, and marriage contracts were announced. 2. The Standard He monopolized in his hand issues relevant to war launching. 3. Doorkeeping of Al-Kabah He was the only one eligible to open its gate, and was responsible for its service and protection. 4. Providing water for the Pilgrims This means that he used to fill basins sweetened by dates and raisins for the pilgrims to drink. . Feeding Pilgrims This means making food for pilgrims who could not afford it. Qusai even imposed on Quraish annual land tax, paid at the season of pilgrimage, for food. It is noteworthy however that Qusai singled out Abd Manaf, a son of his, for honour and prestige though he was not his elder son (Abd Ad -Dar was), and entrusted him with such responsibilities as chairing of An-Nadwa House, the standard, the doorkeeping of Al-Kabah, providing water and food for pilgrims.Due to the fact that Qusais deeds were regarded as unquestionable and his orders inviolable, his death gave no rise to conflicts among his sons, but it later did among his grand children, for no sooner than Abd Munaf had died, his sons began to have rows with their cousins sons of Abd Ad -Dar, which would have accustomed rise to dissension and fighting among the whole tribe of Quraish, had it not been for a peace treaty whereby posts were reallocated so as to preserve feeding and providing water for pilgrims for the sons of Abd Munaf while An -Nadwa House, the flag and the doorkeeping of Al-Kabah were maintained for the sons of Abd Ad -Dar. The sons of Abd Munaf, however, cast the lot for their charge, and consequently left the charge of food and water giving toHashim bin Abd Munaf, upon whose death, the charge was interpreted over by a brother of his called Al-Muttalib bin Abd Manaf and afterwards by Abd Al-Muttalib bin Hashim, the Prophets grandfather, whose sons assumed this position until the rise of Islam, during which Abbas bin Abdul-Muttalib was in charge. Many other posts were distriamong people of Quraish for establishing the pillars of a new democratic petite state with government offices and councils similar to those of today. Enlisted as foll ows are some of these posts. 1. Casting the heaps for the idols was allocated to Bani Jumah. 2. Noting of offers and sacrifices, settlement of disputes and relevant is sues were to lie in the hands of Bani Sahm. 3.Consultation was to go to Bani Asad. 4. Organization of blood-money and fines was with Bani Tayim. 14 5. Bearing the national banner was with Bani Omaiyah. 6. The military institute, footmen and cavalry would be Bani Makhzums responsibility. 7. Bani Adi would function as foreign mediators. RULERSHIP IN PAN-ARABIA We have previously mentioned the Qahtanide and Adnanide emigrations, and division of Arabia between these two tribes. Those tribes dwelling near Heerah were subordinate to the Arabian king of Heerah, while those dwelling in the Syrian semi-desert were under domain of the Arabian Ghassanide king, a sort of dependency that was in reality formal rather than actual.However, those living in the hinder deserts enjo yed full autonomy. These tribes in fact had heads chos en by the whole tribe which was a demi-government based on tribal solidarity and collective interests in defence of land and property. Heads of tribes enjoyed dictatorial privileges similar to those of kings, and were rendered full obedience and subordination in both war and peace. Rivalry among cousins for rulership, however, often drove them to outdo one another in showtaining guests, affecting generosity, wisdom and chivalry for the sole purpose of outranking their rivals, and gaining fame among people especially poets who were the official spokesmen at the time.Heads of tribes and masters had special claims to spoils of war such as the quarter of the spoils, whatever he chose for himself, or found on his way back or even the remaining indivisible spoils. THE policy-making SITUATION T he three Arab regions adjacent to foreigners suffered great weakness and inferiority. The people there were either masters or slaves, rulers or subordinates. Masters, especially the foreigners, ha d claim to every advantage slaves had nothing but responsibilities to shoulder. In other words, arbitrary autocratic rulership brought about encroachment on the rights of subordinates, ignorance, oppression, iniquity, injustice and hardship, and turning them into people look in darkness and ignorance, viz. fertile land which rendered its fruits to the rulers and men of power to extravagantly dissipate on their pleasures and enjoyments, whims and desires, tyranny and aggression. The tribes living near these regions were fluctuating between Syria and Iraq, whereas those living inside Arabia were disunited and governed by tribal conflicts and racial and religious disputes. They had neither a king to sustain their independence nor a supporter to seek advice from, or depend upon, in hardships. The rulers of Hijaz, however, were greatly esteemed and respected by the Arabs, and were considered as rulers and servants of the religious centre. Rulership of Hijaz was, in fact, a mixture of s ecular and official antecedency as well as religious leadership.They ruled among the Arabs in the name of religious leadership and always monopolized the custodianship of the Holy Sanctuary and its neighbourhood. They looked after the interests of A l-Kabah visitors and were in charge of putting Abrahams code into effect. They even had such offices and departments like those of the parliaments of today. However, they were too weak to carry the heavy burden, as this evidently came to light during the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) invasion. 15 RELIGIONS OF THE ARABS Most of the Arabs had complied with the call of Ishmael (Peace be upon him) , and professed the religion of his father Abraham (Peace be upon him) They had worshipped Allah, professed His Oneness a nd followed His religion a long time until they forgot part of what they had been reminded of.However, they still maintained such fundamental beliefs such as monotheism as well as various other aspects of Abrahams religion, until the time when a chief of Khuzaa, namely Amr bin Luhai, who was renowned for righteousness, charity, reverence and care for religion, and was granted unreserved love and obedience by his tribesmen, came back from a trip to Syria where he saw people worship idols, a phenomenon he approved of and believed it to be righteous since Syria was the locus of Messengers and Scriptures, he brought with him an idol (Hubal) which he placed in the middle of Al-Kabah and summoned people to worship it. Readily enough, paganism spread all over Makkah and, thence, to Hijaz, people of Makkah being custodians of not only the Sacred House but the whole Haram as well. A great many idols, bearing different names, were introduced into the area. An idol called Manat, for instance, was worshipped in a place known as Al-Mushallal near Qadid on the Red Sea. Another, Al-Lat in Taif, a third, Al-Uzza in the valley of Nakhlah, and so on and so forth. Polytheism prevailed and the number of idols increased everywhere i n Hijaz.It was even mentioned that Amr bin Luhai, with the help of a jinn companion who told him that the idols of Noahs folk Wadd, Suwa, Yaguth, Yauk and Nasr were buried in Jeddah, dug them out and took them to Tihama. Upon pilgrimage time, the idols were distributed among the tribes to take back home. Every tribe, and house, had their own idols, and the Sacred House was also overcrowded with them. On the Prophets conquest of Makkah, 360 idols were found around Al-Kabah. He broke them down and had them removed and burned up. Polytheism and worship of idols became the most prominent feature of the religion of pre -Islam Arabs despite alleged profession of Abrahams religion. Traditions and ceremonies of the worship of their idols had been mostly created by Amr bin Luhai, and were deemed as good innovations rather than deviations from Abrahams religion.Some features of their worship of idols were Self-devotion to the idols, seeking refuge with them, acclamation of their names, calling for their help in hardship, and supplication to them for fulfillment of wishes, hopefully that the idols (i. e. , pleasure seeker gods) would mediate with Allah for the fulfillment of peoples wishes. Performing pilgrimage to the idols, circumrotation round them, self-abasement and even prostrating themselves before them. Seeking favour of idols through various kinds of sacrifices and immolations, which is mentioned in the Quranic verses And that which is sacrificed (slaughtered) on An -Nusub (stone-altars) 53 Allah also says Eat not (O believers) of that (meat) on which Allahs Name has not been pronounced (at the time of the slaughtering of the animal). 6121 Consecration of certain portions of food, drink, cattle, and crops to idols. Surprisingly enough, portions were also consecrated to Allah Himself, but people often found reasons to transfer parts of Allahs portion to idols, but never did the opposite. To this effect, the Quranic verses go And they assign to Allah a s hare of the tilth and cattle which He has created, and they say This is for Allah according to their pretending, and this is for our (Allahs so-called) partners. But the share of their (Allahs so-called) partners, reaches not Allah, while the share of Allah reaches their (Allahs so-called) partners.Evil is the way they judge. 6136 16 Currying favours with these idols through votive offerings of crops and cattle, to which effect, the Quran goes And according to their pretending, they say that such and such cattle and crops are forbidden, and none should eat of them except those whom we allow. And (they say) there are cattle forbidden to be used for burden or any other work, and cattle on which (at slaughtering) the Name of Allah is not pronounced lying against Him (Allah). 6138 Dedication of certain animals (such as Bahira, Saiba, Wasila and Hami) to idols, which meant sparing such animals from useful work for the sake of these heathen gods.Bahira, as reported by the well-known historian, Ibn Ish, was daughter of Saiba which was a female camel that gave birth to ten successive female animals, but no male ones, was set free and forbidden to yoke, burden or being sheared off its wool, or milked (but for guests to drink from) and so was done to all her female offspring which were given the name Bahira, after having their ears slit. The Wasila was a female sheep which had ten successive female daughters in five pregnancies. Any new births from this Wasila were assigned only for male people. The Hami was a male camel which produced ten progressive females, and was thus similarly forbidden. In mention of this, the Quranic verses go Allah has not instituted things like Bahira ( a she-camel whose milk was spared for the idols and nobody was allowed to milk it) or a Saiba (a she camel let loose for free pasture for their false gods, e. g. idols, etc. , and othing was allowed to be c arried on it), or a Wasila (a she-camel set free for idols because it has given b irth to a she-camel at its first delivery and then again gives birth to a she-camel at its second delivery) or a Ham (a stallion-camel freed from work for their idols, after it had finished a number of copulations assigned for it, all these animals were liberated in honour of idols as practised by pagan Arabs in the pre Islamic period). But those who disbelieve, invent lies against Allah, and most of them have no understanding. 5103 Allah also says And they say What is in the bellies of such and such cattle (milk or foetus) is for our males alone, and forbidden to our females (girls and women), but if it is born dead, then all have shares therein. 6139 It has been authentically reported that such superstitions were first invented by Amr bin Luhai.The Arabs believed that such idols, or heathen gods, would bring them nearer to Allah, lead them to Him, and mediate with Him for their sake, to which effect, the Quran goes We worship them only that they may bring us near to Allah. 39 3, and And they worship besides Allah things that hurt them not, nor profit them, and they say These are our intercessors with Allah. 1018 Another prophetic tradition among the Arabs was casting of Azlam (i. e. featherless arrows which were of three kinds one showing yes, another no and a third was blank) which they used to do in case of serious matters like travel, marriage and the like. If the lot showed yes, they would do, if no, they would delay for the next year.Other kinds of Azlam were cast for water, blood-money or showed from you, not from you, or Mulsaq (consociated). In cases of doubt in filiation they would employ to the idol of Hubal, with a hundred-came l gift, for the arrow caster. Only the arrows would then decide the sort of relationship. If the arrow showed (from you), then it was decided that the child belonged to the tribe if it showed (from others), he would then be regarded as an ally, but if (consociated) appeared, the person would retain his position but w ith no lineage or alliance contract. This was very much like swordplay and arrow-shafting whereby they used to divide the meat of the camels they slaughtered according to this tradition.Moreover, they used to have a deep condemnation in the tidings of soothsayers, diviners and astrologers. A soothsayer used to dealing in the business of foretelling future events and claim knowledge of private secrets and having jinn subordinates who would communicate the news to him. Some soothsayers claimed that they could uncover the unknown by means of a granted power, while other diviners boasted they could divulge the secrets through a cause-and-effect-inductive process that would lead to detecting a stolen c ommodity, location of a theft, a frame animal, and the like. The astrologer belonged to a third category who used to observe the stars and calculate their movements and orbits whereby he would foretell the future.Lending credence to this news constituted a clue to their conviction that attached special significance to the movements of particular stars with regard to rainfall. The belief in signs as betokening future events, was, of course common among the Arabians. Some days and months and particular animals were regarded as ominous. They also believed that the soul of a murdered person would fly in the wilderness and would never rest at rest until revenge was 17 taken. superstitious notion was rampant. Should a deer or bird, when released, turn right then what they embarked on would be regarded auspicious, otherwise they would get pessimistic and withhold from pursuing it.People of pre -Islamic period, whilst believing in superstition, they still retained some of the Abrahamic traditions such as devotion to the Holy Sanctuary, circumambulation, observance of pilgrimage, the vigil on Arafah and offering sacrifices, all of these were observed fully despite some innovations that adulterated these holy rituals. Quraish, for example, out of arrogance, feeling of supe riority to other tribes and pride in their custodianship of the Sacred House, would refrain from release to Arafah with the crowd, instead they would stop short at Muzdalifah. The Noble Quran rebuked and told them Then depart from the place whence all the people depart. 2199 Another heresy, deeply established in their social tradition, dictated that they would not eat dried yoghurt or cooked fat, nor would they enter a tent made of camel hair or seek shade unless in a house of adobe bricks, so long as they were committed to the intention of pilgrimage. They also, out of a deeply-rooted misconception, denied pilgrims, other than Makkans, access to the food they had brought when they wanted to make pilgrimage or lesser pilgrimage. They ordered pilgrims coming from outside Makkah to circumambulate Al-Kabah in Quraish uniform clothes, but if they could not afford them, men were to do so in a state of nudity, and women with only some piece of cloth to hide their groins. Allah says in t his concern O Children of Adam Take your adornment (by wearing your clean clothes), while praying and going round (the Tawaf of) the Kabah. 731If men or women were generous enough to go round Al-Kabah in their clothes, they had to discard them after circumambulation for good. When the Makkans were in a pilgrimage consecration state, they would not enter their houses through the doors but through holes they used to dig in the back walls. They used to regard such behaviour as deeds of piety and god-fearing. This pattern was prohibited by the Quran It is not Al-Birr (piety, righteousness, etc. ) that you enter the houses from the back but Al-Birr (is the quality of the one) who fears Allah. So enter houses through their proper doors, and fear Allah that you may be successful. 2189 Such was the religious life in Arabia, polytheism, idolatry, and superstition.Judaism, Christianity, Magianism and Sabianism, however, could find their ways easily into Arabia. The migration of the Jews f rom Palestine to Arabia passed through two phases first, as a result of the pressure to which they were exposed, the remainder of the their temple, and taking most of them as captives to Babylon, at the hand of the King Bukhtanassar. In the year B. C. 587 some Jews left Palestine for Hijaz and settled in the northern areas whereof. The second phase started with the Roman occupation of Palestine under the leadership of Roman Buts in 70 A. D. This resulted in a tidal wave of Jewish migration into Hijaz, and Yathrib, Khaibar and Taima, in particular.Here, they made proselytes of several tribes, built forts and castles, and lived in villages. Judaism managed to play an important role in the pre -Islam political life. When Islam dawned on that land, there had already been several famous Jewish tribes Khabeer, Al-Musta liq, An-Nadeer, Quraizah and Qainuqa. In some versions, the Jewish tribes counted as many as twenty. Judaism was introduced into Yemen by someone called Asad Abi Karb. He had gone to fight in Yathrib and there he embraced Judaism and then went back taking with him two rabbis from Bani Quraizah to instruct thpeople of Yemen in this new religion. Judaism found a fertile soil there to propagate and gain adherents.After his death, his son Yusuf Dhu Nawas rose to power, attacked the Christian community in Najran and ordered them to embrace Judaism. When they refused, he ordered that a pit of fire be dug and all the Christians indiscriminately be dropped to burn therein. Estimates say that between 20-40 thousand Christians were killed in that human massacre. The Quran related part of that story in Al-Buruj (zodiacal signs) Chapter. Christianity had first made its appearance in Arabia following the entry of the Abyssinian (Ethiopian) and Roman colonists into that country. The Abyssinian (Ethiopian) colonizatio n forces in group discussion with Christian missions entered Yemen as a retaliatory reaction for the iniquities of Dhu Nawas, and started vehemently to propagate their assurance ardently.They even built a church and called it Yemeni Al-Kabah with the aim of directing the Arab pilgrimage caravans towards Yemen, and then made an attempt to demolish the Sacred House in Makkah. Allah, the Almighty, however did punish them and made an example of them here and hereafter. A Christian missionary called Fimion, and known for his ascetic behaviour and working miracles, had likewise infiltrated into Najran. There he called people to Christianity, and by virtue of his honesty and truthful devotion, he managed to persuade them to respond positively to his invitation and embrace Christianity. The principal tribes that embraced Christianity were Ghassan, Taghlib, Tai and some Himyarite kings as well as other tribes living on the borders of the Roman Empire. 18Magianism was also popular among the Arabs living in the neighbourhood of Persia, Iraq, Bahrain, Al-Ahsa and some areas on the Arabian Gulf coast. Some Yemenis are also reported to hav e professed Magianism during the Persian occupation. As for Sabianism, excavations in Iraq revealed that it had been popular amongst Kaldanian folks, the Syrians and Yemenis. With the advent of Judaism and Christianity, however, Sabianism began to give way to the new religions, although it retained some followers mixed or adjacent to the Magians in Iraq and the Arabian Gulf. THE RELIGIOUS SITUATION Such was the religious life of the Arabians before the advent of Islam.The role that the religions prevalent played was so marginal, in fact it was next to nothing. The polytheists, who faked Abrahamism, were so far detached from its precepts, and totally oblivious of its immanent good manners. They plunged into disobedience and ungodliness, and developed certain eccentric religious superstitions that managed to leave a serious impact on the religious and socio -political life in the whole of Arabia. Judaism turned into abominable hypocrisy in league with hegemony. Rabbis turned into lor ds to the exclusion of the Lord. They got involved in the practice of dictatorial subjection of people and calling their subordinates to account for the least word or idea.Their sole orient turned into acquisition of wealth and power even if it were at the risk of losing their religion, or the emergence of atheism and disbelief. Christianity likewise opened its doors wide to polytheism, and got too difficult to compre hend as a heavenly religion. As a religious practice, it developed a sort of peculiar medley of man and God. It exercised no bearing whatever on the souls of the Arabs who professed it simply because it was alien to their style of life and did not have the least relationship with their p